Articles

Introduction. The publication continues the series of articles devoted to the description of the collection of photographs of representatives of the peoples of the Kuban region, and is devoted to the study of photographic images of the Abaza. The method of anthropological photography is not only a visual way to preserve information over time, but also plays a significant role in shaping scientific heritage.

Materials and methods. The work was based on a collection of photographs collected by E.D. Felitsyn (1848-1903), presented by him at the Anthropological Exhibition of 1879 in Moscow and stored in the collections of the D.N. Anuchin Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology of Lomonosov Moscow State University.

Results. Describe and analyze the photographic images of the Abaza people who lived in the Batalpashinsky district of the Kuban region in the villages of Loovo-Kubansky and Dudarukovsky.

Discussion. The authorship of the studied Abaza photographs has been established: A.K. Engel, a famous photographer in the Caucasus in the late 19th and early 20th centuries made them. The article presents literary information on the problems of studying the origin, ethnic history, and cultural traditions of this nationality, as well as data on the study of the anthropological features of the Abaza.

Conclusion. The first published photographic images of Abaza, which are part of the collection provided by E.D. Felitsyn at the Anthropological Exhibition in 1879, are unique and have scientific, historical and documentary value and significance as visual material. With the development of modern society, photographs, along with museum exhibits, become the only witnesses of past times and events, an essential addition to the study of the indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus, which requires persistent joint efforts by anthropologists, ethnographers, geneticists, historians and linguists. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The research is devoted to the study of an archival photographs' collection of the Tungus and Orochons of the late 19th – early 20th centuries, stored in the collections of Anuchin Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology. In this article some photographs from the collection are published for the first time. In the work examines the possibilities of using archival photographic materials of the Tungus and Orochons to obtain a composite photographic portrait, and its comparison with composite photographic portraits of the modern Evenks.

Materials and methods. The material for the study was a collection of photographs of the Tungus and Orochons, collected at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, which is currently stored in the funds of the Anuchin Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology of Lomonosov Moscow State University. Moreover, to the photographs examined in the collections of the Museum of Anthropology, supplementary sources of archival photographs were used to create a composite portrait. A composite portrait of increased clarity was obtained using the faceONface software (combining images at three reference points). A comparative analysis of composite portraits obtained from archival and modern photographs was carried out.

Results and discussion. As a result of a comparative analysis of composite portraits of young and mature Tungus, constructed from archival materials, their significant similarity was revealed. Similarities were also noted between the portrait of the Tungus, obtained from archival data, and the portrait of modern Amur Evenks.

Conclusion. As a result of the analysis of the archival photo collection, the places of origin of some photographs were clarified, and new persons who participated in the creation of the photo collection were discovered. Based on the results of this study, it was shown that the composite photographic portrait method turned out to be the most correct tool for extracting anthropological information from archival photographic materials. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Introduction. Mahalanobis distances (D²) are used in craniological studies to provide a generalised assessment of differences between samples, taking into account trait variances and correlations. However, sample distances tend to be biased upwards compared to the true D² value, especially in the case of small sample sizes. An adjustment for the number of observations, proposed by D. Rightmire, is one way of compensating for this bias. However, the conditions for its application and even the methods for calculating the variables may vary according to the characteristics of the sample. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effective impact of the adjustment on Mahalanobis distances and to explore approaches to reduce bias in sample estimates.

Materials and methods. The analysis was based on three aggregated series of male skulls fr om Bashkirs, Chuvash and Latvians. D² was calculated using an averaged covariance matrix. Three methods of calculating Mahalanobis distances were considered: with no adjustment for the number of observations, with Rightmire's adjustment applied to all distances, and with an adjustment that considers only statistically significant distances. In addition, alternative approaches to adjustment were tested in cases wh ere there were large differences in the number of observations for individual traits: using the harmonic mean of the sample sizes and calculating D² separately for linear and angular traits, followed by summation.

Results. Rightmire's correction, when applied to all distances, generally provides accurate and unbiased estimates of D². When adjustments are applied, the D² value may approach zero or even become negative, even in cases where there are significant differences between populations. Since the medians of the sample D² values are closest to the true D² values, all negative D² values can be safely transformed to zero without compromising the calculations. A D² value of zero does not imply that there are no morphological differences between samples. To approximate the true distance between samples, confidence intervals can be calculated, e.g. using bootstrapping procedures.

Conclusion. Rightmire's correction allows for unbiased Mahalanobis distance estimates when using an averaged covariance matrix and small sample sizes. However, the choice of a specific correction method should take into account the sample size and the variability in the number of observations for different traits. When working with poorly preserved cranial series, it is advisable to use the harmonic mean of the sample sizes or separate distance calculations for angular and linear traits. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Introduction. The reproductive parameters of the Tatar population of Siberia were studied, specifically: the Siberian Tatars, the Siberian Bukharans, and the Kolyon Tatars. A comparative analysis was conducted using a unified set of indicators to assess differences among these groups, and in relation to the Volga-Ural Tatars. The results are interpreted within the context of analyzing contribution of biological and non-biological factors to reproductive processes.

Materials and methods. The study encompassed seven ethno-territorial subgroups of the Tobol-Irtysh, Baraba, and Tomsk Siberian Tatars; the Bukharan Tatars, residing compactly in the Tyumen and Omsk regions; and the Kolyon Tatars, descendants of migrants from the Volga region. A total of 667 questionnaires filled out by women over the age of 45 were analyzed; the study examined age-related parameters and vital statistics, including the number of pregnancies and their outcomes.

Results and Discussion. The average number of children surviving to reproductive age enabled the classification of the reproductive type as expanded among the Tobol-Irtysh and Baraba Siberian Tatars, and simple among the Bukharan Tatars, Kolyon Tatars, and Tomsk Siberian Tatars. The ethnoterritorial subgroups of Tobol–Irtysh Siberian Tatars exhibited the lowest rate of prenatal losses compared with other Siberian Tatar groups – the Baraba, Tomsk, and Siberian Bukharan Tatars. The primary contributor to the structure of prenatal losses among the Siberian Tatars comes from medical abortions, with the highest average number observed among the Tomsk Tatars and Siberian Bukharan Tatars.

The Crow index and its components were as follows: for the Siberian Tatars – I_m = 0.040, I_f = 0.355, I_tot = 0.409; for the Bukharan Tatars – I_m = 0.013, I_f = 0.242, I_tot = 0.258; and for the Kolyon Tatars – I_m = 0.038, I_f = 0.184, I_tot = 0.229. And within the ethnoterritorial groups of the Siberian Tatars: Tobol-Irtysh Tatars: I_m = 0.031, I_f = 0.372, I_tot = 0.414; Baraba (Baraba-Turash) Tatars: I_m = 0.037, I_f = 0.327, I_tot = 0.377; Tomsk Tatars: I_m = 0.091, I_f = 0.303, I_tot = 0.421.

Conclusions. The analysis of the obtained data on the reproductive parameters of the Siberian Tatars revealed that, during the studied time period, reproductive processes in the Tatar population of the Siberian region are predominantly determined by non-biological factors. In the studied populations, a low level of natural selection pressure, operating through differential fertility, was observed. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Introduction. For the first time, we present the results of the odontoglyphics applied to the analysis of the upper molars of Homo erectus from the Zhoukoudian. In general, the odontoglyphical pattern of the studied molars demonstrates greater complexity compared to the known characteristics of modern human teeth.

Materials and methods. Copies of Homo erectus teeth from Zhoukoudian and fossil teeth of the Early and Middle Pleistocene from the localities of Hexian, Yiyuan, Meipu and Tongzi. Methodology of odontoglyphics according to the monographs of A.A. Zubov and N.I. Khaldeeva.

Results and discussion. On the teeth of Homo erectus, a large number of third-order furrows were observed, for example, the 5th groove of the paracone and protocone (5pa, 5pr) and the 3rd groove of the paracone (3pa); we consider the latter as a result of bifurcation of the main crest of the paracone near the central fossa on the upper molars. As a result of the analysis, a new odontoglyphical trait - “unifeather grooves” in the anterior fovea on the occlusal surface of the upper molars - was identified and described. The relationship between the pattern at the enamel-dentin junction (EDJ) and the occlusal enamel surface (OES) is discussed. A correlation between mesial marginal accessory tubercles and odontoglyphic features in this region of the teeth is addressed. In this context, we discussed the primitiveness of the accessory tubercles, in particular, the lingual paracone tubercle (LPT), which can be traced back to the late Early-Pleistocene of Asian Homo erectus.

Conclusion. The results may be useful for identifying and understanding the phylogenetic origin of additional cusps and grooves on the molars of early Homo. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The article presents the results of a comparative analysis of descriptive traits of indigenous peoples of Kyrgyzstan, Kalmykia, South Siberia and Western Mongolia.

Materials and methods. The data were collected during comprehensive anthropological expeditions in 2013-2017 in the populations of Sart-Kalmaks, Kalmyks, Mongols, Tuvinians, and Altaians. The program included following descriptive characteristics: the shape of legs was noted in the body structure, the pigmentation of skin, hair and eyes, the shape of hair and the development of tertiary hair on the face and chest in men were determined in the racial-diagnostic complex. Standard scales, point characteristics, and the method of generalized photographic portraits were used.

Results. It is shown that all studied groups are close to each other by the totality of descriptive features, while ethnic groups with the greatest Caucasoid admixture in their genesis deviate towards lighter shades of skin, eyes and hair. The occurrence of O-shaped legs, especially in men, correlates with genetic and historical data on the presence or absence of a Caucasoid component. Generalized photographic portraits of each sub-ethnic group confirm the general similarity of anthropological appearance due to the manifestation of a single racial component in all series.

Discussion. In general, according to descriptive features, all studied individuals are bright representatives of different anthropological types of the large mongoloid race and are characterized by darkly pigmented hair and eyes. New information for anthropological differentiation was introduced by the study of the shape of legs, associated with the frequency of occurrence of the O-shape. The application of the method of generalized photographic portraits allowed to make a more complete picture of the appearance of representatives of the studied ethnic groups. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The purpose of the study is to calculate the age–related reproduction parameters of the rural population of a number of ethnic groups in the North Caucasus (menarche, menopause, the onset of sexual activity, the birth of the first and last child, the age limits of childbearing, protogenetic and intergenetic intervals, physiological and real reproductive periods).

Materials and methods. The survey of post-reproductive age women (over 45 years old) was conducted by local health officials at our request during a comprehensive genetic and epidemiological survey of the population of Karachay-Cherkessia and North Ossetia-Alania. Representatives of the main ethnic groups of these republics (Karachay, Abaza, Nogai, Circassian, Kumyk, Ossetian, Ingush and Russians of both republics) were interviewed. The analysis included 2,921 rural population survey questionnaires. In the case of a sufficient number of questionnaires collected, an analysis of temporal changes in the parameters under consideration (by decades) was carried out. For the Kumyk, Ingush and Russians of North Ossetia, the questionnaires turned out to be insufficient for such a division.

Results. The age of menarche and menopause fall within physiological limits. The age of birth of the first child reveals statistically significant differences between Karachay women and Kumyk women. The physiological reproductive period is several times longer than the real one. The Russians of North Ossetia have the largest protogenetic interval. The intergenetic interval has undergone significant time changes.

Discussion. When comparing with the results of similar studies of Komi-Permians, Shorians, Tatars, Bashkirs and Russians from other regions, it is suggested that splitting into larger time periods (for example, by generations rather than decades) will illustrate more significant temporal changes in these parameters.

Conclusion. The conducted research contributes to the compilation of a complete population-genetic portrait of the studied region. It was found that despite the territorial proximity and similar household structure, there are differences in the reproductive behavior of women belonging to different ethnic groups. However, all are characterized by an increase in the intergenetic interval, indicating the transition of the rural population of the North Caucasus to family planning and conscious childbearing. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. This article is devoted to identifying the relationship between aspects of the physical development of the child's organism at an early age and the susceptibility to diseases in subsequent age periods.

Materials and methods. The material was the main anthropometric data of children in the first three years of life (longitudinal study). The method of analyzing outpatient records was used. The main anthropometric characteristics of children were taken into account: body weight, body length, head circumference (up to 1 year) and chest circumference, on the basis of which the body mass index and the Vervec-Vorontsov index were calculated. Diagnoses and health groups of the same children, whose age as of 2023–2024 was 10–11 years, were extracted from outpatient records.

Results. During the first year of life, the proportion of children with harmonious physical development decreased in both boys and girls due to an increase in the proportion of children with disharmonious and sharply disharmonious development relative to the neonatal period. Analysis of the health status of children revealed that majority of children aged 10–11 years had the 2nd health group, which indicates the presence of functional deviations, frequent diseases, or decrease resistance of the organism. According to the results of cluster analysis, two groups were identified: cluster 1 included children who were characterized by harmonious physical development at an early age, with anthropometric indicators and index values within the normal range. Cluster 2 included children with disharmonious physical development, with anthropometric and index values above or below the norm, and diagnosed with various diseases at the age of 10–11 years.

Conclusion. Assessing the harmony of physical development of children in the early stages of ontogenesis can help identify characteristic disorders in the health and adaptive capabilities of the child's organism, as well as prevent the development of diseases in subsequent age periods, which emphasizes the importance of early diagnosis and monitoring of the physical development of the younger generation. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

The aim of this study was to assess the level of sexual dimorphism of somatic parameters and body proportions in urban samples of Kabardians and Balkars.

Materials and methods. All materials for this study were obtained during a survey of university students in Nalchik (Kabardino-Balkaria) in 2023. Anthropometric data on 317 individuals (135 males and 182 females), aged from 17 to 23 years (the average age was 18,81±1.49) are presented in this paper. The analysis included 19 somatic parameters and several indices characterizing body proportions. To evaluate the level of sex differences in somatic parameters, Student’s t-test was used. For each of the analyzed somatic characteristics, the coefficient of sexual dimorphism was calculated.

Results. The results of the study showed a comparable level of somatic sexual dimorphism in the samples of Kabardians and Balkars. In both studied groups, males are larger than females, as evidenced by the positive values of coefficients of sexual dimorphism of total body sizes (except body mass index). Maximum degree of sexual dimorphism was observed in the longitudinal and transverse parameters of the skeleton. Body height and limbs lengths, as well as skeletal robustness, are greater in males compared to females in both ethnic groups. The values of almost all circumferences were higher in men. For most of the studied somatic parameters, the coefficients of sexual dimorphism are lower in Balkarians, except body height and limbs length.

Conclusion. There were no statistically significant differences in the mean values of somatic parameters in the groups modern urban Balkars and Kabardians. Sexual dimorphism of the majority of the analyzed characteristics was similar in both studied samples. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. In our recent publications, we have established the possibility of using bioimpedance measurements to assess the Heath-Carter somatotype in different age groups. We aimed to develop unified formulas for calculating the somatotype in children and adults, evaluate their accuracy based on age and body mass index, and improve the somatotyping protocol in bioimpedance analyzer software.

Materials and methods. Data from our previous studies on comprehensive anthropometry and related BIA measurements were considered. The main group consisted of ethnic Russians aged 7-59, who were examined in Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Arkhangelsk Region, Elista, and Samara (N=4,296). The comparison group 1 included ethnic Russians aged 16-86 from the Krasnoyarsk Region (N=3,954). The comparison group 2 consisted of ethnic Kalmyks aged 8-25 from Elista (N=940). Using the data of the main group, bioimpedance predictive formulas for Endomorphy (ENDO_BIA) and Mesomorphy (MESO_BIA) ratings were obtained. We evaluated their accuracy in different subgroups of the main group and the comparison groups.

Results. The obtained formulas were as follows: ENDO_BIA = -3,411.8/R50 + 0.942´BMI – 0.00938´BMI² – 0.0235´Ht – 0.28´Sex + 0.034´Age – 2.69 (N=4,296; R²=0.84; SEE=0.76); MESO_BIA = 1,531.8/R50 + 0.302´BMI – 0.0529´Ht + 0.57´Sex – 0.032´Age + 4.52 (N=4,296; R²=0.87; SEE=0.48). These were relatively accurate for the age range 7-40 years for males and 7-59 years for females, but less accurate outside these age ranges or at high BMI values. Based on this, we also suggested formulas for obese people: ENDO_BIA = -2,569/R50 + 0.854´BMI – 0.0087´BMI² – 0.0263´Ht – 0.032´Sex + 0.018´Age – 1.60 (N=296; R²=0.69; SEE=0.87); MESO_BIA = 1,567/R50 + 0.55´BMI – 0.00512´BMI² – 0.0524´Ht + 0.42´Sex – 0.035´Age + 1.66 (N=296; R²=0.62; SEE=0.64). The formulas were integrated into the ABC-02 'Medas' (SRC Medas, Russia) BIA instrument software.

Conclusions. Our findings expand the possibilities for assessing the somatotype and studying its variability. Using uniform calculation formulas for children and adults will help improve comparability of estimates and validity of comparisons. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. Variability of sexual somatic dimorphism of 17-year-old juveniles in connection with the quantity of population of the residence place is under discussion.

Material and methods. The meta-analysis deals with the wide specter of urban samples (literary data) from Russia and neighboring countries (N=145). Somatic dimorphism of height, weight and chest girth is analysed. The estimation of the vector and level of associations of somatic dimorphism of anthropometric traits and the degree of urbanization is held using classic correlation analysis for pair combinations of traits (Pearson correlations). The quantitative estimation of somatic dimorphism is held using Kullback divergence, analogue of Makhalanobis distance.

Results. Analysis of anthropoecological correlations for different combinations of samples (only Slavonic, only samples examined in 1950^th–1970th, samples located in the zone of geograrhic latitude about 40 degrees of north latitude) didn’t reveal significant associations. Still significant increase of somatic dimorphism of height and chest girth according to the vector of urbanization is shown for the local sample of Moscow megalopolis through the historic interval 1925–2019 apart with the increase of the degree of urbanization from about 2 million of inhabitants up to 12,6 million. The form of associations has nonlinear character, The peak of somatic dimorphism is fixed in 1969–1970 for the generation of manifest aссelerats of Moscow.

Conclusion. The absence of significant correlations is connected with relatively low ecosensitivity of the organism apart with significant decrease of growth processes through juvenile period of ontogenesis and the absence of final somatic status, which characterize the intergroup anthropological variability in stable adult age. Besides with the complex superposition of a number of different factors, from ethnic to secular, which hamper the isolating of pure factor of sex and pure factor of degree of urbanization. The significant increase of somatic dimorphism of skeletal dimensions (height and chest girth) according to the vector of urbanization for the local homogenious sample of 17-year-old Moscow juveniles confirm the value of somatic dimorphism of skeletal dimensions as the informative indicator of the degree of urbanization in case of correct arrangement of data. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The article presents the results of the analysis of the dynamics of Russian men height aged 17 years and older in 1902-2000. This topic has already been the subject of a number of researchers. The novelty of the article is that the analysis is based on big data.

Materials and methods. The study used height data of 4,430,180 Russian men aged 17 to 100 years, 117 nationalities, 91% Russian, examined mainly during recruitment into the army under a program that included measuring total body dimensions. The database includes 1,465,272 individual and 2,964,908 total data on height - this is the largest collection of data on the body length of Russian men of the 20th century.

Results. The height of Russian men born in 1902-2000 increased by 11.1 cm – from 166.4 to 177.5 cm. Such significant changes in height over a century, comparable in scale with global trends of the secular trend, are explained mainly by the influence of socio-economic and demographic factors. Approximately the same results were obtained when analyzing changes in the height of women, urban and rural populations. Conclusion. An upward secular trend was observed in the dynamics of the body length of Russians in the 20th century. Over 100 years, men grew from 166.4 to 177.5 cm – by 11.1 cm. Only cohorts born in 1916-1930 showed an insignificant (by 1.2 cm) decrease in average height. The increase in body length in the urban and rural population, as well as in men and women and representatives of different ethnic groups in most cases occurred synchronously and in approximately the same amounts. This means that the Soviet government ensured the improvement of living conditions in all population groups equally. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The Center for Physical Anthropology Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology Russian Academy of Sciences conducts the project «Facial Reconstruction of the World War II Soldiers». The anthropologists are interested in the Great Patriotic War, drawing attention to military topics, and getting new reliable information about its participants, both about the heroes who ensured the victory of our country and about the soldiers of the enemy’s army. The three soldiers of Wehrmacht army of the Italian artillery unit who died at Stalingrad were studied. The work was carried out within the framework of the Russian-Italian project "Forgotten Names", initiated by the Chairman of the "Heritage" Fund for Social Projects (Volgograd) Victor Nikolayevich Vasilevsky.

Materials and methods. The remains of three Italian soldiers were obtained. The reconstruction was carried out according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov with the clarifications of his followers.

Results and discussion. The Laboratory of Anthropological Reconstruction has been working for many years to refine the method developed by M.M. Gerasimov. The appearance of three Italian soldiers was restored taking into account the new developments in the area; then verbal portraits of their appearance were compiled. The reconstructions were handed over to Italy, where they will be compared with the photographs in personal files in military archives of those who fought in 1942 on the territory of the Volgograd and Rostov regions.

Conclusion. On January 26, 2024, the remains of Italian soldiers were delivered to Venice. On January 30, a burial ceremony was held with military honors in the military pantheon of Cargnacco (province of Udine). © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. The paper explores the dietary system of a Nogai group from kurgan 3 at the Sukhaya Termista II in the Rostov region, typical nomads who lived in the Sal river basin at the end of the 16th–early 17th centuries. The analysis of the δ¹³С and δ¹⁵N values of bone collagen helped gain a better understanding of possible components of their dietary system and provided the basis for comparing the results obtained and historical and ethnographic data and the data of geochemical analysis.

Materials and methods. This study intends to analyze written records on dietary preferences of nomadic medieval populations left by travelers in the 13th–19th centuries. The study included the analyses of the funerary rite and demographic characteristics as well as the δ¹³С and δ¹⁵N values of bone tissue collagen. To assess the contribution of the dietary intake components from various trophic levels, we used the δ¹³С and δ¹⁵N data on the plants and animals from the medieval period, cereal crops from the Bronze Age, the Early Iron Age and the 19th century as well as modern fish. To verify the studied dietary system, a comparative analysis using isotopic data obtained for individuals from the graves dating to the Mongol Empire period of the 13th–early 14th centuries as well as the populations of China who lived in the Huang He river basin (the Yangshao culture) in the Bronze Age and for whom millet was a staple food was conducted.

Results and discussion. The analysis of the stable nitrogen and carbon isotope composition shows that Nogai infants were breastfed; the dietary components of adult males and females and some children was the same. The comparison of isotopic composition of the core group of the individuals with that of various dietary components reveals that the local Nogais did not consume millet. The comparison with the reference dataset enabled us to determine substantial inter-group differences in the stable nitrogen and carbon isotope composition of the bone tissue of the Nogais and the Mongol elite of the 13th–14th centuries as well as the Yangshao population of the Bronze Age.

Conclusion. The δ¹³С and δ¹⁵N data of the Nogai bone tissue from Sukhaya Termista and food components of various trophic levels suggest that livestock products were staple food; millet was not consumed. Presumably river fish and mollusks were not components of the dietary system, though some individuals have a higher δ¹⁵N value. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license

Introduction. Anatomical anthropology is a field of study that emerged in the last third of the 19th century to study the variability of human organ structure, considering body type and racial, ethnic, and social affiliation.

The purpose of this study was to review the history of the development of anatomical anthropology with a focus on the stages that led to the formation of the concept of typical and variant anatomy.

Materials and methods. This paper presents an essay on the development of anatomical anthropology. Publications from 1857 to 2024 were reviewed. To assess the place occupied by studies of bone structures, internal organs, and physique in modern Russian journals of anatomical profile, an analysis of 654 articles for 2019-24 was conducted.

Results and discussion. In the early stages of the formation of anthropology as a natural science direction (1860-70s), its connections with normal anatomy were strong. At that time, when studying the variability of the structure of organs and systems in different groups of people, the terms "anatomical anthropology" and "soft tissue anthropology" were adopted. 

As sciences evolved in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the variability of the structure of soft tissues became primarily a subject of study for medical anatomists, and anthropology departments were organizationally removed from the medical faculties of universities. Anatomical anthropology has found its place in medical morphology research. The works of V.N. Shevkunenko made it possible to move from the previous unsystematic accumulation of data on the variability of morphological structures to their systematization and analysis based on a single concept of typical and variant anatomy. This direction has been preserved and developed in medical universities in Russia.

Conclusion. Strengthening interdisciplinary interactions is a characteristic of current biological anthropology research. Anthropologists should pay attention to not only the latest high-tech methods but also the theoretical principles and methods of typical and variant anatomy, which allow them to obtain valuable results in classical morphological research. © 2025. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license